Oncology
Cold agglutinin disease (CAD)
Overview
CAD is a rare, chronic, autoimmune haemolytic anaemia with potentially serious acute and chronic consequences that are driven by C1 activation of the classical complement pathway.1 The diagnosed prevalence for CAD is estimated to be up to 20 per 1,000,000 people.2-4 Median age of onset is approximately 60 years, but CAD has been diagnosed in patients as young as 30 years.2,5-7 C1-activated haemolysis in CAD is caused by chronic activation of the classical complement pathway.8,9 Persistent activation of the classical complement pathway leads to the production of anaphylatoxins, promoting inflammation. Due to chronic C1-activated haemolysis, many patients remain in a haemolytic state over 5 years.2 Severe anaemia events are unpredictable and can occur at any time throughout the disease course.5 CAD is associated with significant increased rate of life-threatening thromboembolic events (TEs).10 Life-threatening TE risk persisted, regardless of season.11 “Cold” in CAD does not represent weather or season.
Diagnosis
Recognising CAD early can help patients receive optimal care.1 CAD is a rare, chronic, autoimmune haemolytic anaemia that shouldn’t be confused with CAS secondary to infection or cancer. For patients, CAD is not a benign condition. If CAD is suspected, the test procedure requires the blood sample to be kept at 37°C to 38°C from the time it is drawn until it is tested to avoid potential false negatives. Refrigeration must be avoided. Key steps of the Diagnostic Algorithm: Detected Anaemia → Confirmed Haemolysis → Positive Polyspecific DAT → Clinical Assessment → Monospecific DAT positive for C3d → Cold Agglutinin titre ≥ 1:64 → Further clinical & serological assessment.
Symptoms5, 7,9, 12, 13,14,15
Symptoms caused by haemolysis:
- Anaemia, shortness of breath
- Profound fatigue
- Haemoglobinuria
- Jaundice
Symptoms caused by agglutination:
- Circulatory symptoms: Acrocyanosis, Raynaud’s phenomenon
- Livedo reticularis (rarely)
Patients with CAD also face a significantly increased risk of medically attended depression and anxiety.16
References:
- Berentsen S, Beiske K, Tjønnfjord GE. Primary chronic cold agglutinin disease: an update on pathogenesis, clinical features and therapy. Hematology. 2007;12(5):361-370. doi:10.1080/10245330701445392
- Berentsen S, Ulvestad E, Langholm R, et al. Primary chronic cold agglutinin disease: a population based clinical study of 86 patients. Haematologica. 2006;91(4):460-466.
- Berentsen S, Barcellini W, D’Sa S, et al. Cold agglutinin disease revisited: a multinational, observational study of 232 patients. Blood. 2020;136(4):480-488. doi:10.1182/blood.2020005674
- Bylsma LC, Gulbech Ording A, Rosenthal A, et al. Occurrence, thromboembolic risk, and mortality in Danish patients with cold agglutinin disease. Blood Adv. 2019;3(20):2980-2985. doi:10.1182/bloodadvances.2019000476
- Mullins M, Jiang X, Bylsma LC, et al. Cold agglutinin disease burden: a longitudinal analysis of anemia, medications, transfusions, and health care utilization. Blood Adv. 2017;1(13):839-848. doi:10.1182/bloodadvances.2017004390
- Berentsen S, Tjønnfjord GE. Diagnosis and treatment of cold agglutinin mediated autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Blood Rev. 2012;26(3):107-115. doi:10.1016/j.blre.2012.01.002
- Berentsen S, Röth A, Randen U, Jilma B, Tjønnfjord GE. Cold agglutinin disease: current challenges and future prospects. J Blood Med. 2019;10:93-103. doi:10.2147/JBM.S177621
- Noris M, Remuzzi G. Overview of complement activation and regulation. Semin Nephrol. 2013;33(6):479-492. doi:10.1016/j.semnephrol.2013.08.001
- Berentsen S. Complement activation and inhibition in autoimmune hemolytic anemia: focus on cold agglutinin disease. Semin Hematol. 2018;55(3):141-149. doi:10.1053/j.seminhematol.2018.04.002
- Broome CM, Cunningham JM, Mullins M, et al. Increased risk of thrombotic events in cold agglutinin disease: a 10-year retrospective analysis. Res Pract Thromb Haemost. 2020;4(4):628-635. doi:10.1002/rth2.12333
- Kamesaki T, Nishimura J-i, Wada H, et al. Demographic characteristics, thromboembolism risk, and treatment patterns for patients with cold agglutinin disease in Japan. Int J Hematol. 2020:112(3):307-315. doi:10.1007/s12185-020-02899-6
- Elharake M, Bors K. Cold agglutinin disease: a case report. W V Med J. 2017;1-4.
- Berentsen S, Randen U, Tjønnfjord GE. Cold agglutinin-mediated autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2015;29(3):455-471. doi:10.1016/j.hoc.2015.01.002
- Hill QA, Stamps R, Massey E, Grainger JD, Provan D, Hill A; British Society for Haematology. The diagnosis and management of primary autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. Br J Haematol. 2017;176(3):395-411. doi:10.1111/bjh.14478
- Aljubran SA. Cold agglutinin disease clinical presentation. Medscape website. Updated December 2, 2020. Accessed March 30, 2022. emedicine.medscape.com/article/135327-clinical
- Patel P, Jiang X, Nicholson G, et al. Medically attended anxiety or depression is increased among newly diagnosed patients with cold agglutinin disease (CAD). Blood. 2020;136(suppl 1):28. doi:10.1182/blood-2020-139791
Cutaneous T-Cell Lymphoma
Overview
Cutaneous T-cell lymphomas (CTCL) are a diverse group of malignant blood disorders characterized by initial skin presentation, and sometimes, tumor spreading to lymph nodes, blood, and viscera. Mycosis fungoides is the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL).
The annual incidence of MF and its variants is estimated at 3–9 persons per million population, with classic MF accounting for approximately 80–90% of MF cases. The male to female ratio is 2:1. Classic MF mainly affects adults and the elderly (median age at diagnosis: 55–60 years). For most people, MF is an indolent, chronic disease, but the course of mycosis fungoides for any one individual can be unpredictable (prognosis depends on the stage at diagnosis). It is not an infection and cannot be passed from person to person.
Diagnosis
Mycosis fungoides is very difficult to diagnose, especially in early stages. The symptoms and skin biopsy findings of MF are similar to other benign skin conditions like eczema, psoriasis, parapsoriasis…
Typical procedures done to diagnose MF include:
- A physical exam
- A skin and/or lymph node biopsy (pathologist examination)
- Blood tests
It is very important that any diagnosis of MF is confirmed by a pathologist who has expertise in diagnosing cutaneous lymphomas. Staging investigations, including a computer tomography scan and/or positron emission tomography, should be performed in cases of advanced MF.
Symptoms
The disease first manifests by skin lesions consisting of flat patches, preferentially located asymmetrically on the buttocks and other sun-protected areas (lower trunk and thighs, and the breasts in women). In the advanced stages of the disease, infiltrated plaques and red-violet, dome-shaped tumors or generalized erythroderma may develop. Lymph nodes are the most frequent site of extracutaneous involvement. Visceral involvement (liver, lung, and bone marrow) may also occur.
Causes
The etiology remains unknown. There is no supportive research indicating that MF is hereditary.
References
Immunol Lett . 2024 Aug:268:106871. doi: 10.1016/j.imlet.2024.106871
HRNB
Overview
Neuroblastoma is a rare cancer that originates in the nervous system.1 It starts in early unmature nerve cells that are most often found in the embryo or foetus2 and is the most common extracranial solid tumour diagnosed in children under 15 years of age, comprising around 7% of all childhood cancers3.
It affects approximately 1,600 babies and young children every year across the EU4 and US5 (800 in each region respectively).
Symptoms
Early symptoms can be vague and hard to spot, and so may be mistaken for more common childhood conditions.6 Symptoms vary depending on where the tumour is in the body and if it has spread.7 65% of neuroblastomas develop in the abdomen, for example the adrenal gland and kidney.8 A common symptom is a lump in the abdomen, that can cause swelling, pain, constipation or diarrhoea. Other symptoms include8:- High blood pressure
- Breathlessness and difficulty swallowing
- Wheezing
- Chest pain
- Numbness
- Weakness
- Loss of movement in the lower part of the body
- Lump of tissue under the skin
- Eyeballs that seem to protrude from the sockets (proptosis)
- Dark circles, similar to bruises, around the eyes
- Back pain
- Fever
- Unexplained weight loss
- Bone pain
Diagnosis
Most neuroblastomas are diagnosed in babies or children under five years old.9 Researchers do not yet know the cause of neuroblastoma. Neuroblastomas are usually picked up when a child is brought to their doctor because of the symptoms they are experiencing.10
In 50% of patients, the cancer has already spread at diagnosis.11 Delays in diagnosis are often due to the complex nature of the cancer, for example the wide variety of symptoms.12
Around 50% of patients are diagnosed with high-risk neuroblastoma and this has the worst prognosis.8 Normally, high-risk neuroblastoma means the cancer has spread. Patients will need an intensive treatment approach, often using a combination of different therapies.13
References
- Pastor ER, Mousa SA. 2019. Current management of neuroblastoma and future direction. Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology. 138:38-43.
- American Cancer Society. What is neuroblastoma? Available at: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/about/what-is-neuroblastoma.html
- Nadja C. Colon et al. Neuroblastoma. 2011; 58(1): 297–311. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC366879
- Gatta G et al. European Journal of Cancer. 2012; 48, 1425-1433. Note: 1.8 cases of neuroblastoma per million were estimated every year in EU 27. With the current population estimated at 448 million this would equate to 806.4 patients
- American Cancer Society. Key Statistics About Neuroblastoma. Available at: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/about/key-statistics.html [November 2020]
- NHS. Neuroblastoma. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/neuroblastoma/ Last accessed November 2021
- Swift, CC et al. Updates in Diagnosis, Management, and Treatment of Neuroblastoma. RadioGraphics, 2018. Volume 38, Issue 2, Pages 566 -580
- Medscape. Neuroblastoma: Practice Essentials, Background, History of the Procedure. Available at: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/439263-overview#a10
- Shohet J and Foster J. 2017. Neuroblastoma. BMJ. 357:j1863 doi:10.1136/bmj.j1863.
- American Cancer Society. Tests for neuroblastoma. Available at: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/detection-diagnosis-staging/how-diagnosed.html
- Ward, E et al. 2014. Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 64(2): 83–103.
- Tolbert, V.P. and Matthay, K.K. 2018. Neuroblastoma: clinical and biological approach to risk stratification and treatment. Cell and Tissue Research. 372(2):195-209. doi:10.1007/s00441-018-2821-2.
- ASCO. Neuroblastoma – Childhood: Stages and Groups. Available at: https://www.cancer.net/cancer-types/neuroblastoma-childhood/stages-and-groups
Idiopathic multicentric Castleman disease (iMCD)
Overview
Castleman disease (CD) is a collection of rare inflammatory blood disorders in which lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, are over produced leading to enlarged lymph nodes.1 CD can affect a person regardless of their age, gender, or race.1,2,4 It is classified into distinct clinical subtypes based on the number of enlarged lymph node regions, histopathological features, and clinical presentation.1-3 All types of CD may be symptomatic, progressive, and require treatment.1,5 Idiopathic multicentric CD (iMCD) is a subset of CD involving multiple groups of enlarged lymph nodes in people who are human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) negative and human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) negative.5,6 Each year, between 3-4 people among every million in the general population are estimated to be diagnosed with iMCD.2 This rare, difficult-to-diagnose condition can have serious and potentially life-threatening consequences.5-7
Symptoms
iMCD can present with a variety of symptoms and laboratory abnormalities that can be mistaken for other mimicking diseases.5 Patients often have serious comorbidities and may have multiple organ dysfunction or failure.6,7
Common clinical signs and symptoms of iMCD may include: 6-9
- Enlarged lymph nodes (multiple regions)
- Flu like symptoms: Night sweats, fever, weight loss, fatigue and weakness
- Laboratory findings: Anemia, elevated C- reactive protein, low albumin levels, elevated ESR, IL-6 and VEGF, high immunoglobulin levels
- Organ dysfunction: Enlarged liver or spleen, renal dysfunction
- Skin lesions
- Edema
- Respiratory symptoms, excess build-up of fluids in the lung
Diagnosis
iMCD diagnosis requires histopathological and clinical assessment for major, minor, and exclusion criteria as outlined by the diagnostic guidelines.6
Diagnosing iMCD is challenging due to lack of unique biomarkers and overlapping symptoms with infectious, immune, and malignant diseases. Diagnostic delays among patients with CD contribute to an overall increase in the burden of disease and an increase in morbidity and mortality for these patients.10-11
Causes
iMCD pathology is poorly understood and the exact cause is unknown. The disease pathology has been associated with autoimmune and autoinflammatory activity and most likely to be driven by cytokines, specifically, interleukin-6 (IL-6).11-12
IL-6 is a cytokine that activates an inflammatory cascade across many tissues and organs.12-13 Most signs and symptoms of iMCD have been linked to IL-6, and overproduction of IL-6 is a key proposed driver of iMCD, however, the cause of increased IL-6 in iMCD is currently unknown.12-14
References
- Dispenzieri A, Fajgenbaum DC. Blood. 2020;135(16):1353-1364.
- Mukherjee S, et al. Blood Adv. 2022;6(2):359-367
- Fajgenbaum DC. Blood. 2018;132(22):2323-2330.
- Borocco C, et al. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2020;15(1):95.
- van Rhee F, et al. Blood. 2018;132(20):2115-2124.
- Fajgenbaum DC, et al. Blood. 2017;129(12):1646-1657.
- Bustamante MS, et al. Haematologica. 2024;109(7):2196-2206
- Liu AY et al. Lancet Haematol. 2016;3(4):e163–e175.
- Oksenhendler E et al. Br J Haematol. 2018;180(2):206–216
- Zinzani PL, et al. Hemasphere. 2023;7(6):e891
- Mukherjee S, et al. Leukemia. 2022;36(10):2539-2543
- Fajgenbaum DC, Shilling D. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2018;32(1):11-21.
- Yoshizaki K, et al. Hematol Oncol Clin N Am. 2018;32(1):23-36.
- Tanaka T, et al. Cancer Immunol Res. 2014;2(4):288-294
- Beck JT, Hsu SM, Wijdenes J, et al. N Engl J Med. 1994;330(9):602-605.
Rare Cancers
Wilms’ tumour (Nephroblastoma)1,2
- A rare malignant renal tumour, typically affecting the pediatric population, characterized by an abnormal proliferation of cells that resemble the kidney cells of an embryo (metanephroma), leading to the term embryonal tumour.
- It usually presents as an abdominal mass in an otherwise apparently healthy child.
- It occurs most commonly among children under 5 years old, and has a very low incidence in the 10-14 and 15-19-year-old populations.
- The annual incidence is estimated at about 1/10,000 births and it affects boys as well as girls.
- It represents 5% of all pediatric cancers.
Childhood rhabdomyosarcoma (Soft Tissue Sarcoma)3,4
- Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common soft tissue tumour found in children and adolescents.
- The median age of diagnosis is 5 years. Rhabdomyosarcoma can develop anywhere in the body, including in sites where striated muscle does not normally occur. The most frequent locations are: the head and neck (40%).
- The annual incidence is 1/170,000. In children younger than 15 years, the annual incidence is estimated at 1/244,000.
- It accounts for 3% of childhood cancers.
Gestational trophoblastic neoplasia5,6,7
- A rare, malignant group of gestational trophoblastic diseases always following pregnancy, most often molar pregnancy. Four histological forms are described: invasive mole, gestational choriocarcinoma, placental site trophoblastic tumour (PSTT) and epithelioid trophoblastic tumour (ETT).
- Gestational choriocarcinoma is the most frequent form of gestational trophoblastic neoplasia (GTN); whilst epidemiological data is limited, in the Netherland incidence is estimated at 1/33,000 deliveries and in the USA 1/41,000 pregnancies. This disease appears to be more frequent amongst the Asian population.
- It develops from the cells that would normally develop into the placenta during pregnancy.
- GTN include invasive mole, choriocarcinoma, placenta site trophoblastic tumour and epithelioid trophoblastic tumour (very rare).
References
- https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/654?name=Wilms&mode=name
- J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2021 Aug 1;19(8):945-977. doi: 10.6004/jnccn.2021.0037
- https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/780?name=rhadomyosarcoma&mode=name
- Chen S, Kelsey AM, Rudzinski ER. Rhabdomyosarcoma in children and young adults. Virchows Arch. 2024 Dec 18. doi: 10.1007/s00428-024-03961-y. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 39694930
- https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/59305?name=Gestational%20trophoblastic%20neoplasm&mode=name
- Obstet Gynecol. 2021 Jan 5;137(2):355–370.
- Eur J Cancer. 2020 May:130:228-240. doi: 10.1016/j.ejca.2020.02.011. Epub 2020 Apr 1.
Renal Cell Carcinoma
Overview
Renal cell cancer (also called kidney cancer or renal cell adenocarcinoma) is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the lining of tubules (very small tubes) in the kidney.1
Kidney cancer accounts for 5% and 3% of all newly diagnosed adult cancer in men and women, respectively, with over 90% of kidney cancers being RCC. This makes RCC one of the top 10 most common cancers worldwide.2,3
Symptoms
There may be no signs or symptoms in the early stages. Some of the most common symptoms may include:1
- Blood in the urine
- A lump in the abdomen
- A pain in the side that doesn’t go away
- Loss of appetite
- Weight loss for no known reason
- Anemia
Diagnosis
In order to diagnose and stage RCC, imaging (CT, MRI, ultrasound) is used, followed by a biopsy or assessment of a nephrectomy specimen to determine the subtype of RCC.2,3
After renal cell cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the kidney or to other parts of the body. The following stages are used to determine the severity of renal cell cancer upon diagnosis:1
- Healthy term infants: 45±9 micromol/L; 80 to 90 micromol/L is the upper limit of normal.
- Preterm infants: 71±26 micromol/L, decreasing to term levels in approximately seven days
- Children older than 1 month: less than 50 micromol/L
- Adults: less than 30 micromol/L
In the neonatal period, hyperammonemia presents with non-specific signs and symptoms, and thus important tests to rule out sepsis, meningitis, intracranial hemorrhage, and GI bleed should be considered. Raised levels of ammonia should prompt specific investigations including arterial blood gases, blood glucose, lactate and citrulline levels, plasma and urinary amino acids, organic acids, urinary ketones, etc. Some additional tests that can be done for diagnosing urea cycle defects and organic acidemias, including specific enzyme assays on liver biopsy specimens or r blood cells and DNA mutation.
In many countries nowadays diagnosis of PA, MMA and IVA is performed with newborn screening (NBS).
References
Escudier et al. Renal cell carcinoma: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Annals of Oncology 2016; 27(suppl. 5): v58–v68.
Hsieh et al. Renal cell carcinoma. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2017; 3: 17009. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.9.